Urang Tamil Sri Lanka
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இலங்கை தமிழர் (ஈழத் தமிழர்) Tamil Eelam | |
---|---|
Total populasi | |
~ 3 juta (pakiroan; indak tamasuak Moor jo Tamil India) | |
Kawasan jo populasi nan signifikan | |
Sri Lanka | 2.270.924 (2012)[1] |
Kanada | 143.000 (2014)[2] |
Baritania Rayo | ~120.000 (2006)[3] |
India | ~100.000 (2005)[4] |
Jerman | ~60.000 (2008)[5] |
Parancih | ~50.000 (2008)[6] |
Swiss | ~35.000 (2006)[7] |
Australia | ~30.000[8] |
Italia | ~25.000[8] |
Malaysia | ~24.436 (1970)[9] |
Balando | ~20,000[8] |
Norwegia | ~10.000 (2000)[8] |
Denmark | ~9.000 (2003)[10] |
Bahaso | |
Bahaso di Sri Lanka: Bahaso Tamil (jo dialek Sri Lanka) Bahaso Sinhala & Bahaso Inggirih | |
Agamo | |
Kalompok etnis takaik | |
Urang Tamil Sri Lanka atau Tamil Sailan adolah etnis nan marupokan panduduak asali di Pulau Sailan atau Sri Lanka. Urang Tamil Sri Lanka ko masih sarumpun jo urang Tamil India. Walau sarumpun, bahaso nan dipakai agak babeda dek banyak kosakato saisuak nan dipakai Tamil Sri Lanka. Urang Tamil Sri Lanka labiah banyak mauni utara jo timur pulau. Rami dari urang Tamil Sri Lanka maanuik agamo Hindu. Di Sri Lanka, etnis ko marupokan etnis paliang gadang kaduo sasudah etnis Sinhala.[11]
Sijarah
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Urang Tamil Sri Lanka mulonyo adolah parantau Tamil dari India Selatan pado kiro-kiro abaik ka-5 SM. Parantau ko kudian barasimilasi jo panduduak satampek. Galombang rantau samakin gadang tajadi pangaruah karajaan Chola masuak ka Sailan sajak mulo abaik partamo masehi inggo mancapai puncaknyo katiko invasi Chola pado abaik ka-11. Kudian pado abaik ka-13 didirikanlah Karajaan Jaffna dek dinasti Arya Chakaravati dari Karajaan Pandya di ujuang utara Sailan, karajaan nan alah tapisah dari karajaan Tamil lainnyo di India Selatan.[12][13][14]
Karajaan Jaffna runtuah pado abaik ka-16 katiko Portugih mulai manjajah Sailan. Portugih manguasoi daerah pasisia (utamonyo barat) sabagai tampek baniago. Portugih juo mambaok agamo Katolik ka pasisia Sailan sainggo urang-urang Tamil sabagian ado nan bapindah agamo dari Hindu. Pado maso ko urang-urang Tamil dari India ado pulo nan dibaok Portugih dari India ka siko. Salanjuiknyo pamarintahan diambiak aliah Balando pado abaik ka-18. Dek Balando sistem kasta pado urang Tamil di Jaffna mandapek tampek sainggo pabudakan samakin marak tajadi. Salanjuik abaik ka-19 sampai abaik ka-20, Inggirih manuruihan pamarintahan di Sailan. Pado maso ko banyak urang Tamil India nan dibaok untuak manjadi urang parak teh di daerah Kandy, pagunuangan Sailan.[14][11][12]
Salapeh Sailan mardeka dari Inggirih pado 1948, urang Sinhala jo urang Tamil acok maalami parang sudaro untuak barabuik kuaso nagara. Dek urang Sinhala banyak mandapek posisi di baragam bidang, urang Tamil mambantuak kalompok separatis nan banamo Macan Tamil (Tamil Tiger) untuak mambantuak nagara Tamil nan tapisah maliputi Provinsi Utara jo Timur.[14][11][12]
Masyarakaik
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Urang Tamil Sri Lanka marupokan masyarakaik nan tingga di pasisia Sri Lanka. Manuruik sensus 2012 ado 2.270.924 urang Tambil Sri Lanka atau 11,2% populasi. Sakitar 70% tingga di Provinsi Utara jo Timur inggo manjadi mayoritas di kaduo provinsi ko.[15]
Salain di dalam Sri Lanka, ramai pulo urang Tamil Sri Lanka nan pai marantau cino ka lua nagari. Angko pastinyo alun lai jaleh, tapi dipakirokan antaro 450.000 inggo sajuta urang.[16][17]
Sacaro umum tabagi manjadi tigo komunitas nan diakui sabagai Tamil Sri Lanka, yaitu Tamil Utara, Tamil Timur, jo Tamil Barat. Urang Tamil Utara dianggap sabagai asamulo urang Tamil Sri Lanka. Salain katigo komunitas tasabuik, adopulo komuniitas lain nan sabananyo urang Tamil, yaitu kalompok Tamil Muslim nan banyak tingga di Provinsi Timur Sri Langka. Namun, dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka, komunitas Muslim ko komunitas tapisah dan dianggap sabagai Etnis Moor.[15]
Provinsi | Tamil
Sri Lanka |
%
Provinsi |
% Tamil
Sri Lanka |
---|---|---|---|
Tangah | 128.263 | 5,0% | 5,7% |
Timur | 609.584 | 39,3% | 26,8% |
Utara | 987.692 | 93,3% | 43,5% |
Utara Tangah | 12.421 | 1,0% | 0,6% |
Barat Laut | 66.286 | 2,8% | 2,9% |
Sabaragamuwa | 74.908 | 3,9% | 3,3% |
Selatan | 25.901 | 1,1% | 1,1% |
Uva | 30.118 | 2,4% | 1,3% |
Barat | 335.751 | 5,8% | 14,8% |
Total | 2.270.924 | 11,2% | 100,0% |
Tamil Timur
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Urang Tamil Sri Lanka Timur tingga di Provinsi Timur, tapeknyo di distrik Tricomalee, Batticaloa, jo Ampara. Manuruik sijarah, pado abaik ka-16 urang Tamil Timur ko ado di baruah kuaso Karajaan Kandy sainggo pakambangan budayo urang Tamil Timur babeda jo urang Tamil Utara. Samantaro, sistem adat nan dijalankan dek urang Timur disabuik adat Mukkuvar, nan alah dikodifikasi sajak maso kolonial Balando.[18][19][20][21][22]
Urang Tamil Timur marupokan masyarakaik tani. Inyo manjalankan sistem kasta nan sarupo jo sistem patalian darah nan ado di India Selatan. Kasta urang Timur didominasi kasta Mukkuvar, Vellalar, jo Karaiyar. Dalam ciek kasta tadiri ateh babarapo suku. Sistem suku ko sarupo jo urang Minangkabau nan manuruik garih turunan mandeh (matrilineal) sarato maanuik sistem pakawinan exogami (indak manikah sasuku). Dek tamil, istilah suku ko disabuik kudi. Satiok urang nan lahia, baiak laki-laki atau padusi, sacaro lansuang manjadi bagian dari kudi mandehnyo. Satiok kudi mampunyoi juo tampek ibadahnyo surang.[23][24][25]
Tamil Utara
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Urang Tamil Sri Lanka Utara bahubuangan arek jo sijarah Karajaan Jaffna nan dulunyo manjadi karajaan mardeka atua tapisah dari karajaan-karajaan Tamil India. Hal iko manjadikan klaim politik dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka. Sacaro umum, urang Tamil Utara ko tabagi duo kalompok, yaitu kalompok nan dari Tanjuang Jaffa (di utara) jo panduduak Vanni di bagian nan agak ka selatan Provinsi Utara, Sri Lanka. Masyarakaik Jaffna tabagi-bagi dalam sistem kasta nan juo didominasi urang-urang kasawah. Dalam sistem kasta urang Jaffa, ado kasta-kasta tinggi cando nan dominan kasta Vellalar, Karaiyar, jo Mukkuvar. Kasta-kasta tinggi ko dilayani dek Kudimakkal. Kudimakkal ko adolah palayan-palayan untuak kasta tinggi nan dapek barasa dari Panchamars, limo kasta randah cando Nalavar, Pallar, Parayar, Vannar, jo Ambattar.[26][27][28][29][30]
Urang Vanni manyabuik dirinyo sabagai masyarakaik tapisah dari Jaffa. Walau baitu, tatap tajadi pulo pakawinan di antaro duo kalompok ko nan kudian tingga di daerah Vanni. Urang Vanni manuruik sijarahnyo bahubuangan jo Pamarintahan Kadatuan Vanni nan pado abaik patangahan bakontak arek jo India Selatan. Saari-ari urang Vanni iduik jo baladang sarato baburu jo bataranak. Babeda jo urang Tamil Timur, urang Tamil Utara ko maanuik sistem adat Thesavalamai, nan alah dikodifikasi sajak zaman Balando.[26][31]
Tamil Barat
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Urang Tamil Sri Lanka Barat, nan siabuik juo subagai urang Tamil Negombo atau Puttalam, adolah urang Tamil Sri Lanka asali nan mauni pasisia barat Sri Lanka utamonyo di distrik Gampaha jo Puttalam. Istilah ko indak tamasuak di dalamnyo urang Tamil Sri Lanka nan marantau ka siko.[32] Urang Barat umumnyo marupokan palauik atau nalayan nan alah baasimilasi jo budayo Sinhala. Sacaro bahaso, urang Tamil Barat mamakai bahaso Tamil dialek Negombo.[33] Walau baitu, urang Tamil Barat dapek mangecek duo bahaso. Hal lain nan mambedakan jo Tamil lainnyo adolah hukum adat sarato agamo.[34][35][36] Urang Tamil Barat ado nan baragamo Hindu adopulo nan Katolik Roma.[37][38][39]
Komunitas lainnyo
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Ado duo komunitas nan babahaso Tamil, tapi indak dianggap sabagai etnik nan samo jo urang Tamil Sri Lanka, yaitu urang Tamil Muslim jo Tamil India. Urang Tamil Muslim marupokan urang Sri Lanka nan asali babahaso Tamil sarato baragamo Islam.[40][41] Walau banyak bukti nan manunjuakannyo Tamil Sri Lanka,[42] tatap sajo manuai kontroversi sainggo didaftarkan dek pamarintah sabagai etnik babeda.[43] Samantaro, urang Tamil India adolah urang Tamil nan pado abaik ka-19 dibaok dek Inggirih untuak mananam teh di bukik-bukik Sri Lanka tangah.[44] Dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka, urang Tamil India ko dianggap sabagai etnik babeda. Pado taun 1948, urang Tamil India dicoret kawarganegaraan Sri Lankanyo inggo akhianyo pado taun 1960 diadokan kasapakatan jo Pamarintah India untuak mambuka kawarganegaraan urang Tamil India. Hasianyo ado 40% nan batahan sarato mamiliah manjadi warga nagara Sri Lanka.[45][46]
Kaji genetika
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Urang Tamil Sri Lanka mampunyoi tradisi jo budayo nan babeda jo panduduak Sri Lanka lainnyo utamonyo jo Sinhala sarato labiah dakek jo Tamil India sacarao tradisi jo budayo. Walau baiatu dari kaji genetika, urang Tamil Sri Lanka mampunyoi kamiripan jo urang Sinhala. Hal iko dipakirokan dek alah lamo bacampua baua urang Tamil Sri Lanka jo Sinhala sarato dek lah tapisah dari Tamil India. Sabagai pambanding, urang Tamil Sri Lanka babagi kamiripan 69,89% jo urang Sinhala dari pado urang Tamil India.[47]
Bahaso
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Bahaso Tamil jo dialek Sri Lanka marupokan bahaso nan rami dipakai dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka. Dialek ko agak babeda dari dialek Tamil India. Banyak kato-kato lamo nan indak ado dalam Tamil India masih dipakai dalam kecek urang Tamil Sri Lanka.[48][49]
Urang Tamil Sri Lanka tamasuak masyarakaik nan multilingual (mampunyoi kamampuan mangecek labiah dari ciek bahaso). Ado 30% urang Tamil Sri Lanka nan pandai mangecek jo bahaso Sinhala, sarato ado 20% nan pandai mangecek dalam bahaso Sinhala.[50][51]
Agamo
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Agamo nan paliang banyak dianuik urang Tamil Sri Langka adolah agamo Hindu, sakitar 80%.[52] Urang Hindu Tamil Sri Lanka biaso tingga di utara jo timur Sri Lanka.[53] Ado pulo sabagian keteknyo nan maanuik agamo Kristen, umumnyo Katolik Roma. Nan baragamo Kristen ko biaso tingga di Barat Sri Lanka. Ado pulo saketek urang Tamil Sri Lanka nan baragamo Buddha, kiro-kiro 1% dari sadoalah urang Tamil Sri Lanka.[54][55][53]
Makanan
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]Makanan urang Tamil Sri Lanka indak jauah babeda jo makanan Tamil India. Adopulo pangaruah dari kolonial sarato padagang lua nagari saisuak. Makanan pokok dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka adolah nasi. Samantaro nan manjadi samba piliahan nan tanamo adolah kari. Jinih kari nan ado di Sri Lanka agak babeda dari nan ado di India, jo ragamnyo nan babeda di tiok daerah.[56]
Rujuakan
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]- ↑ "Census of Population and Housing 2011". www.statistics.gov.lk. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2017-04-28. Diakses tanggal 2020-01-13.
- ↑ "Tamils by the Numbers". TamilCulture.ca (dalam bahasa Inggris). 2012-11-05. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2014-04-26. Diakses tanggal 2020-01-13.
- ↑ "BBCSinhala.com". www.bbc.com. Diakses tanggal 2020-01-13.
- ↑ Kumar, Acharya, A. (2014). "Ethnic conflict and refugees in Sri Lanka". Antropología Experimental. 0 (7). Ringkasan.
- ↑ Baumann, Martin; Salentin, Kurt (2006-10-01). "Migrant Religiousness and Social Incorporation: Tamil Hindus from Sri Lanka in Germany". Journal of Contemporary Religion. 21 (3): 297–323. doi:10.1080/13537900600925958. ISSN 1353-7903.
- ↑ TamilNet. "TamilNet". www.tamilnet.com (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2020-01-13.
- ↑ swissinfo.ch, S. W. I.; Corporation, a branch of the Swiss Broadcasting. "Swiss Tamils look to preserve their culture". SWI swissinfo.ch (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2020-01-13.
- ↑ a b c d "History of the Tamil Diaspora". murugan.org. Diakses tanggal 2020-01-13.
- ↑ "Tamil". Ethnologue (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2020-01-13.
- ↑ Barnes 2002, hlm. 110.
- ↑ a b c Mahadevan, Iravatham (8 March 2002). "Aryan or Dravidian or Neither? – A Study of Recent Attempts to Decipher the Indus Script (1995–2000)". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 8 (1). ISSN 1084-7561. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 23 July 2007. Diakses tanggal 2 March 2020.
- ↑ a b c "Tamils". Minority Rights Group (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2020-02-29.
- ↑ Manogaran 1994, hlm. 1-2;Chapter 2.
- ↑ a b c Peebles, P. (1990). Colonization and Ethnic Conflict in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka. The Journal of Asian Studies, 49(1), 30-55. doi:10.2307/2058432
- ↑ a b c "A2 : Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012". Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2017-04-28. Diakses tanggal 2020-02-28.
- ↑ Orjuela, Camilla (2012). "5: Diaspora Identities and Homeland Politics". di dalam Terrence Lyons. Politics from Afar: Transnational Diasporas and Networks. C. Hurst & Co.. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-84904-185-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=ShluycPZdS4C&redir_esc=y.
- ↑ "The Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora after the LTTE: Asia Report N°186". International Crisis Group. 23 February 2010. hlm. 2. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 16 May 2010.
- ↑ Sivathamby 1995, hlm. 2–4.
- ↑ Subramaniam 2006, hlm. 1–13.
- ↑ McGilvray, D. Mukkuvar Vannimai: Tamil Caste and Matriclan Ideology in Batticaloa, Sri Lanka, pp. 34–97
- ↑ Sivathamby 1995, hlm. 7–9.
- ↑ McGilvray, Dennis B. (1982). Caste Ideology and Interaction. Cambridge University Press. p. 59. ISBN 9780521241458. https://books.google.com/books?id=n-88AAAAIAAJ.
- ↑ Ruwanpura, Kanchana N. (2006) (dalam bahaso en). Matrilineal Communities, Patriarchal Realities: A Feminist Nirvana Uncovered. University of Michigan Press. pp. 96. ISBN 978-0-472-06977-4. https://books.google.com/?id=Mw5cbpeFsvcC&pg=PA96&dq=eastern+tamils+caste#v=onepage&q=eastern%20tamils%20caste&f=false.
- ↑ Yalman 1967, hlm. 282–335.
- ↑ Sivathamby 1995, hlm. 5–6.
- ↑ a b Sivathamby 1995, hlm. 4–12.
- ↑ Fernando, A. Denis N. (1987). "Pennsular Jaffna From Ancient to Medieval Times: Its Significant Historical and Settlement Aspects". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka. 32: 63–90. JSTOR 23731055.
- ↑ Gunasingam 1999, hlm. 62.
- ↑ Pfister, Raymond (1995) (dalam bahaso en). Soixante ans de pentecôtisme en Alsace (1930–1990): une approche socio-historique. P. Lang. p. 165. ISBN 978-3-631-48620-7. https://books.google.com/?id=TJHYAAAAMAAJ&dq=karaiyar+maritime&q=karaiyar.
- ↑ Gerharz, Eva (2014-04-03) (dalam bahaso en). The Politics of Reconstruction and Development in Sri Lanka: Transnational Commitments to Social Change. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-69279-9. https://books.google.com/?id=Xj9FAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT73&dq=vellalar+dutch#v=onepage&q=vellalar%20dutch&f=false.
- ↑ Thambiah 2001, hlm. 12.
- ↑ Peebles, Patrick (2015) (dalam bahaso en). Historical Dictionary of Sri Lanka. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 55. ISBN 9781442255852. https://books.google.com/?id=50igCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55&dq=negombo+paravar#v=onepage&q=negombo%20paravar&f=false.
- ↑ Foell, Jens (2007). "Participation, Patrons and the Village: The case of Puttalam District". University of Sussex. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 11 June 2008. Diakses tanggal 25 June 2008.
One of the most interesting processes in Mampuri is the one of Sinhalisation. Whilst most of the Sinhala fishermen used to speak Tamil and/or still do so, there is a trend towards the use of Sinhala, manifesting itself in most children being educated in Sinhala and the increased use of Sinhala in church. Even some of the long-established Tamils, despite having been one of the most powerful local groups in the past, due to their long local history as well as caste status, have adapted to this trend. The process reflects the political domination of Sinhala people in the Government controlled areas of the country.
- ↑ Rajeswaran, S.T.B. (2012) (dalam bahaso en). Geographical Aspects of the Northern Province, Sri Lanka. Governor's Office. pp. 69. https://books.google.com/?id=SCIDFTjeDD4C&q=catholic+belt+sri+lanka&dq=catholic+belt+sri+lanka.
- ↑ Bonta, Steven (2010). "Negombo Fishermen's Tamil: A Case of Indo-Aryan Contact-Induced Change in a Dravidian Dialect". Anthropological Linguistics. 52 (3/4): 310–343. doi:10.1353/anl.2010.0021. JSTOR 41330804.
- ↑ Kularatnam, K. (April 1966). "Tamil Place Names in Ceylon outside the Northern and Eastern Provinces". Proceedings of the First International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia vol.1. International Association of Tamil Research. pp. 486–493.
- ↑ Fernando v. Proctor el al, 3 Sri Lanka 924 (District Court, Chilaw 27 October 1909).
- ↑ Gair 1998, hlm. 171.
- ↑ Bonta, Steven (June 2008). "Negombo Fishermen's Tamil (NFT): A Sinhala Influenced Dialect from a Bilingual Sri Lankan Community". International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics. 37.
- ↑ Mohan, Vasundhara (1987). Identity Crisis of Sri Lankan Muslims. Delhi: Mittal Publications. pp. 9–14, 27–30, 67–74, 113–118.
- ↑ "Analysis: Tamil-Muslim divide". BBC News World Edition. Diakses tanggal 6 July 2014.
- ↑ Zemzem, Akbar (1970). The Life and Times of Marhoom Wappichi Marikar (booklet). Colombo.
- ↑ de Silva 1987, hlm. 9.
- ↑ de Silva 1987, hlm. 181.
- ↑ de Silva 1987, hlm. 262.
- ↑ Suryanarayan, V. (4 August 2001). "In search of a new identity". Frontline. 18 (16). Diakses tanggal 2 July 2008.
- ↑ Kshatriya, GK (December 1995). "Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations". Human Biology. 67 (6): 843–66. PMID 8543296.
- ↑ "Census of Population and Housing 2011". www.statistics.gov.lk. Department of Census and Statistics. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 16 April 2021. Diakses tanggal 14 November 2018.
- ↑ Kuiper, L.B.J (March 1964). "Note on Old Tamil and Jaffna Tamil". Indo-Iranian Journal. 6 (1): 52–64. doi:10.1007/BF00157142.
- ↑ "Census of Population and Housing 2011". www.statistics.gov.lk. Department of Census and Statistics. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 16 April 2021. Diakses tanggal 14 November 2018.
- ↑ Bonta, Steven (June 2008). "Negombo Fishermen's Tamil (NFT): A Sinhala Influenced Dialect from a Bilingual Sri Lankan Community". International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics. 37.
- ↑ "Sri Lanka: Country study". The Library of Congress. 1988. Diakses tanggal 25 June 2008.
- ↑ a b Sivathamby 1995, hlm. 34–89.
- ↑ Perera, Yohan. "22,254 Tamil Buddhists in SL". Daily Mirror. Diakses tanggal 31 March 2016.
- ↑ "Overview: Pentecostalism in Asia". The pew forum. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 6 March 2008. Diakses tanggal 24 March 2008.
- ↑ Ramakrishnan, Rohini (20 July 2003). "From the land of the Yaal Padi". The Hindu. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 31 December 2013. Diakses tanggal 4 March 2020.
Daftar pustaka
[suntiang | suntiang sumber]- Barnes, Michael (2002). Theology and the dialogue of religions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-511-01900-9. OCLC 52611459.
- Wilson, A. Jeyaratnam (2000). Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-0759-3.
- Lehmann, Thomas (1998). The Dravidian languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10023-2. OCLC 36407883.
- Bass, Daniel (2012). Everyday Ethnicity in Sri Lanka : Up-country Tamil Identity Politics. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-22418-8. OCLC 823386993.
- Roberts, Michael (1989). People inbetween. Ratmalana: Sarvodaya Book Pub. Services. ISBN 955-599-013-1. OCLC 22352571.
- Vijayalakshmi, E. (2005). Cultural minorities of Sri Lanka : their growth, achievements, and relevance today. Colombo: International Centre for Ethnic Studies. ISBN 955-580-096-0. OCLC 60767182.
- Ruwanpura, Kanchana N. (2006). Matrilineal communities, patriarchal realities : a feminist Nirvana uncovered. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-09977-9. OCLC 71146592.
- Brito, C. (1876). The Mukkuva law: or, The rules of succession among the Mukkuvars of Ceylon. OCLC 4624637.
- Civattampi, Kārttikēcu (1995). Sri Lankan Tamil society and politics. Madras: New Century Book House. ISBN 81-234-0395-X. OCLC 33162843.