Albert Einstein

**Albert Einstein**
Albert Einstein
	Einstein pado taun 1947.
Lahia	14 Maret 1879; Ulm, Württemberg, Kekaisaran Jerman
Maningga	18 April 1955 (umua 76); Princeton, New Jersey, Amerika Serikat
Tampek tingga	Jerman, Italia, Swiss, Austria,(kini Ceko), Belgia, Amerika Serikat
Kawarganegaraan	Subjek Kerajaan Württemberg pada masa Kekaisaran Jerman (1879–1896); Tanpa kewarganegaraan (1896–1901); Warga negara Swiss (1901–1955); Subjek Austria pada Kekaisaran Austria-Hungaria (1911–1912); Subjek Kerajaan Prussia pada Kekaisaran Jerman (1914–1918); Warga negara Jerman Negara Merdeka Prussia (Republik Weimar, 1918–1933); Warga negara Amerika Serikat (1940–1955);
Bidang	Fisika, filsafat
Institusi	Kantor Paten Swiss (Bern) (1902–1909); Universitas Bern (1908–1909); Universitas Zurich (1909–1911) * Universitas Charles Praha (1911–1912); ETH Zurich (1912–1914); Akademi Sains Prussia (1914–1933); Universitas Humboldt Berlin (1914–1933); Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (direktur, 1917–1933); German Physical Society (presiden, 1916–1918); Universitas Leiden (tamu, 1920); Institute for Advanced Study (1933–1955); Caltech (tamu, 1931–1933); Universitas Oxford (tamu, 1931–1933);
Tesis	Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen (Determinasi Baru Dimensi Molekuler) (1905)
Pambimbiang; akademik	Alfred Kleiner
Pambimbiang; akademik lain	Heinrich Friedrich Weber
Dikana dek	Relativitas umum; Relativitas khusus; Efek fotolistrik; E=mc2 (kesetaraan massa-energi); E=hf (relasi Planck–Einstein); Teori gerak Brown; Persamaan medan Einstein; Statistik Bose–Einstein; Kondensat Bose–Einstein; Gelombang gravitasi; Konstanta kosmologi; Teori medan terpadu; Paradoks EPR; Interpretasi ansambel; Daftar konsep lainnya;
Dipangaruahi	Arthur Schopenhauer; Baruch Spinoza; Bernhard Riemann; David Hume; Ernst Mach; Hendrik Lorentz; Hermann Minkowski; Isaac Newton; James Clerk Maxwell; Michele Besso; Moritz Schlick; Thomas Young;
Mampangaruahi	Hampia sadoalah cabang fisika modern;
Pangharagoan	Medali Barnard (1920); Nobel Fisika (1921); Medali Matteucci (1921); ForMemRS (1921); Medali Copley (1925); Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1926); Medali Max Planck (1929); Member of the National Academy of Sciences (1942); Tokoh Abad Ini Time (1999);
Pasangan	Mileva Marić (m. 1903; c. 1919); Elsa Löwenthal (m. 1919; meninggal 1936)

Albert Einstein (/ˈaɪnstaɪn/ ^[4] Jerman: [ˈalbɛɐ̯t ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ; lahia 14 Maret 1879 – maningga 18 April 1955 pado umua 76 taun) adolah fisikawan teoretis, ilmuwan, filsuf sains, dan tokoh intelektual dunia kelahiran Jerman.^[5] Einstein terkenal barakaik pangambangan teori relativitas, teori mekanika kuantum dan realisme ilmiah. Baginyo relativitas jo mekanika kuantum adolah duo pilar fisika modern.^[6]^[7] Sacaro luweh diakui sabagai salah saurang ilmuwan tahebaik sapanjang maso. Karya-karyanyo juo dikenal karano bapangaruah tahadok filsafat ilmu.^[8]^[9] Pasamoaan Einstein nan paliang dikana adolah rumus kasetaraan massa-energi E = mc² , nan dijuluki "pasamoaan paliang takenal di dunia".^[10] Einstein manarimo Nobel Fisika pado taun 1921 ateh jasonyo tahadokfisika teoritis, dan khususnyo ateh panamuannyo tentang hukum efek fotolistrik",^[11] nan manjadi langkah pantiang dalam pangambangan teori kuantum.

Manjalang awal karirnyo, Einstein bapandapek bahwasanyo mekanika Newton indak lai mampu manyatuan hukum mekanika klasik jo hukum medan elektromagnetik. Hal iko mandorongnyo mangambangan teori relativitas khusus katiko bakarajo di Kantor Paten Swiss di Bern (1902-1909). Namun, inyo manyadari bahwa prinsip relativitas juo dapek dipaluweh cakupannyo pado medan gravitasi, dan inyo manabikan sabuah makalah manganai relativitas umum pado taun 1916 malalui teorinyo tentang gravitasi. Einstein taruih manaliti masalah mekanika statistika jo teori kantum, nan mangarah pado panjelasannyo manganai teori partikel dan gerak molekul. Einsteinjuo manaliti kandungan termal cahayo, nan malatakan dasar bagi teori foton cahayo. Pado taun 1917, inyo manerapkan teori relativitas umum untuak mamodelan struktur alam samasta.^[12]^[13]

Sasudah mahabihan wakatu ciek taun di Praha, Einstein tingga di Swiss dari taun 1895 hinggo 1914, malapeh kewarganegaraan Jermannyo pado taun 1896, dan luluih sarjana dari sekolah politeknik federal Swiss (kelak Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) di Zurich pado taun 1900. Sasudah hiduik tanpa kewarganegaraan salamo labiah dari limo taun, Einstein mamparoleh kewarganegaraan Swiss pado taun 1901, nan tetap inyo pacik sampai akhir hayatnyo. Pado taun 1905, inyo dianugrahi gala PhD dek Universitas Zurich. Pado taun nan samo, Einstein manabikan ampek makalah terobosan pado omaso annus mirabilis (taun mukjizat), nan mahantaranyo masua dunia akademis pado umua ka 26 taun. Einstein mangaja fisika teoritis di Zurich dari taun 1912 sampai 1914, kudian pindah ka Berlin dan manjadi anggota Akademi Sains Prusia.

Pado taun 1933, kutiko Einstein mangunjungi Amerika Serikat, Adolf Hitler bakuaso. Karano latar balakang Yahudinyo, Einstein mamiliah indak baiak ka Jerman.^[14] Inyo manetap di Amerika Serikat jo manjadi warga negara Amerika pado taun 1940.^[15] Manjalang Parang Dunia II, Einstein mangirim surek kapado Presiden Franklin D. Roosevelt, nan mamparingekan manganai potensi pangambangan "bom jinih baru nan sangaik dahsyat" dan manyaranan agar AS sugiro mamulai panalitian sarupo. Sarannyo iko pado akhirnyo mangarah pado Proyek Manhattan. Einstein mandukuang Sekutu, tetapi manantang gagasan panggunoan fisi nuklir sabagai sanjato. Einstein manandatangani Manifesto Russell-Einsten basamo filsuf Britania Raya Bertrand Russell, nan manyoroti dan mangecam bahayo sanjato nuklir. Inyo mangabdi di Institute for Advanced Study di Princeton, New Jersey, hinggo inyo maningga pado taun 1955.

Einstein manabikan labiah dari 300 makalah ilmiah dan labiah dari 150 karya non ilmiah.^[12]^[16] Prestasi intelektual dan orisinalitasnyo manjadian kato intelektual jo orisinalitasnyo manjadian kato "Einstein" identik dengan "genius".^[17] Manuruik Eugene Wigner, "pamahaman Einstein labiah dari John von Neumann. Pikirannyo labiah tajam dan labiah orisini daripado von Neumann. Dan itu adolah pamikiran nan sangaik lua biaso.^[18]

Rujuakan

Catatan kaki

1 2 During the German Empire, citizens were exclusively subjects of one of the 27 Bundesstaaten.

Kutipan

1 2 Kutipan rusak: Tag <ref> indak sah; indak ado teks untuak ref banamo frs
↑ Heilbron, John L., ed (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-19-974376-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=abqjP-_KfzkC&pg=PA233.
↑ Pais (1982), hlm. 301.
↑ Wells, John (3 April 2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (edisi ke-3rd). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia0000unse.
↑ "Albert Einstein – Biography". Nobel Foundation. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 6 March 2007. Diakses tanggal 7 March 2007.
↑ Whittaker, E. (1 November 1955). "Albert Einstein. 1879–1955". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 1: 37–67. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1955.0005. ISSN 0080-4606. JSTOR 769242.
↑ Fujia Yang; Joseph H. Hamilton (2010). Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4277-16-7.
↑ Howard, Don A., ed. (2014) [First published 11 February 2004]. "Einstein's Philosophy of Science". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 April 2021. Diakses tanggal 4 Februari 2015.
↑ Howard, Don A. (Desember 2005). "Albert Einstein as a Philosopher of Science" (PDF). Physics Today. 58 (12): 34–40. Bibcode:2005PhT....58l..34H. doi:10.1063/1.2169442. Diarsipkan dari asli Archived [Date error] (2)^{[Date mismatch]}, di Wayback Machine. (PDF) tanggal 28 Agustus 2015. Diakses tanggal 8 Maret 2015 – via University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, author's personal webpage.
↑ Bodanis, David (2000). E = mc²: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation. New York: Walker.
↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921". Nobel Prize. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 3 Juli 2018. Diakses tanggal 11 Juli 2016.
1 2 "Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2011. The accelerating universe" (PDF). Nobel Media AB. hlm. 2. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 16 Mei 2012. Diakses tanggal 4 Januari 2015.
↑ Overbye, Dennis (24 November 2015). "A Century Ago, Einstein's Theory of Relativity Changed Everything". The New York Times. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 12 Agustus 2018. Diakses tanggal 24 November 2015.
↑ Levenson, Thomas (9 Juni 2017). "The Scientist and the Fascist". The Atlantic. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 12 Mei 2019. Diakses tanggal 6 Agustus 2019.
↑ Paul S. Boyer; Melvyn Dubofsky (2001). The Oxford Companion to United States History. Oxford University Press. hlm. 218. ISBN 978-0-19-508209-8.
↑ . His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld).
↑ "Result of WordNet Search for Einstein". 3.1. The Trustees of Princeton University. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 28 Agustus 2015. Diakses tanggal 4 Januari 2015.
↑ The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner, By Eugene Paul Wigner, Andrew Szanton, (Springer, 2013), p. 170 ^{[tanpa ISBN]}

Karya kutipan

Calaprice, Alice; Kennefick, Daniel; Schulmann, Robert (2015). An Einstein Encyclopedia. Princeton University Press. https://archive.org/details/einsteinencyclop0000cala.
Clark, Ronald W. (1971). Einstein: The Life and Times. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-380-44123-5.
Fölsing, Albrecht (1997). Albert Einstein: A Biography. Abridged by Ewald Osers. New York: Penguin Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-85545-2. https://archive.org/details/alberteinsteinbi00fols.
Fine, Arthur (2017). "The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2019-03-18. Diakses tanggal 2019-08-18.
Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993). The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-16744-9. https://archive.org/details/privatelivesofal0000high.
Hoffmann, Banesh (1972). Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel'. with the collaboration of Helen Dukas. London: Hart-Davis, MacGibbon. ISBN 978-0-670-11181-7. https://archive.org/details/alberteinsteincr0000hoff_y3a8.
Isaacson, Walter (2007). Einstein: His Life and Universe. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-7432-6473-0. https://archive.org/details/einsteinhislifeu0000isaa_m3x1.
Neffe, Jürgen (2007). Einstein: A Biography. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-14664-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=B8K6n177ZwcC.
Pais, Abraham (1982). Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=0QYTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1.
Pais, Abraham (1994). Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280672-7. https://archive.org/details/einsteinlivedher00pais.
Penrose, Roger (2007). The Road to Reality. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-77631-4.
Stachel, John J. (1966). Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić. 9. unknown. http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf. Diakses pado 13 Mai 2016.
Stachel, John J. (2002). Einstein from 'B' to 'Z'. Einstein Studies. 9. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-8176-4143-6. OCLC 237532460.
Stone, A. Douglas (2013). Einstein and the Quantum. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13968-5. https://archive.org/details/einsteinquantumq0000ston.
Weinstein, G. (2015). General Relativity Conflict and Rivalries: Einstein's Polemics with Physicists. Newcastle upon Tyne (UK): Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-8362-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=LQz5DAAAQBAJ.

[GEcitizen-1] 1 2 During the German Empire, citizens were exclusively subjects of one of the 27 Bundesstaaten.

[frs-2] 1 2 Kutipan rusak: Tag <ref> indak sah; indak ado teks untuak ref banamo frs

[3] Heilbron, John L., ed (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-19-974376-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=abqjP-_KfzkC&pg=PA233.

[FOOTNOTEPais1982301-4] Pais (1982), hlm. 301.

[5] Wells, John (3 April 2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (edisi ke-3rd). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia0000unse.

[Bio-6] "Albert Einstein – Biography". Nobel Foundation. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 6 March 2007. Diakses tanggal 7 March 2007.

[7] Whittaker, E. (1 November 1955). "Albert Einstein. 1879–1955". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 1: 37–67. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1955.0005. ISSN 0080-4606. JSTOR 769242.

[8] Fujia Yang; Joseph H. Hamilton (2010). Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4277-16-7.

[9] Howard, Don A., ed. (2014) [First published 11 February 2004]. "Einstein's Philosophy of Science". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 April 2021. Diakses tanggal 4 Februari 2015.

[10] Howard, Don A. (Desember 2005). "Albert Einstein as a Philosopher of Science" (PDF). Physics Today. 58 (12): 34–40. Bibcode:2005PhT....58l..34H. doi:10.1063/1.2169442. Diarsipkan dari asli Archived [Date error] (2)^{[Date mismatch]}, di Wayback Machine. (PDF) tanggal 28 Agustus 2015. Diakses tanggal 8 Maret 2015 – via University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, author's personal webpage.

[11] Bodanis, David (2000). E = mc²: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation. New York: Walker.

[12] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921". Nobel Prize. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 3 Juli 2018. Diakses tanggal 11 Juli 2016.

[:0-13] 1 2 "Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2011. The accelerating universe" (PDF). Nobel Media AB. hlm. 2. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 16 Mei 2012. Diakses tanggal 4 Januari 2015.

[14] Overbye, Dennis (24 November 2015). "A Century Ago, Einstein's Theory of Relativity Changed Everything". The New York Times. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 12 Agustus 2018. Diakses tanggal 24 November 2015.

[15] Levenson, Thomas (9 Juni 2017). "The Scientist and the Fascist". The Atlantic. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 12 Mei 2019. Diakses tanggal 6 Agustus 2019.

[16] Paul S. Boyer; Melvyn Dubofsky (2001). The Oxford Companion to United States History. Oxford University Press. hlm. 218. ISBN 978-0-19-508209-8.

[17] . His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld).

[18] "Result of WordNet Search for Einstein". 3.1. The Trustees of Princeton University. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 28 Agustus 2015. Diakses tanggal 4 Januari 2015.

[19] The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner, By Eugene Paul Wigner, Andrew Szanton, (Springer, 2013), p. 170 ^{[tanpa ISBN]}

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